- Environmental factors affect physical health (e.g. respiratory problems due to air pollution) and mental wellbeing (e.g. poor mental health due to drought).
- Both natural and man-made environmental features can benefit our health (e.g. green space, water fluoridation).
- Human intervention in their environment can play a vital role in increasing or reducing health risks.
- People living in more ?walkable? neighbourhoods were less likely to be obese.
- There is a lack of detailed data on environmental exposures and health outcomes, particularly at a local level. Nevertheless, significant insights linking our environment and our health can be shown.
Let?s look at some common environmental factors in a little more detail. Keep in mind how you could alter your environment for the benefit of your health how you could take measures to reduce risks of adverse health outcomes.
Air temperature:
High air temperatures can cause heat cramps, fainting, heat exhaustion, heat stroke and dehydration. This is especially true for the elderly who may be less able to regulate their body temperature, and because they are often less likely to have access to air conditioning or a cooler environment. One Sydney study showed a 4.5 ? 12.1% increase in mortality for every 10 degrees C in maximum temperature. Similar increases were also found in New Zealand. A 2004 heatwave in Brisbane resulted in a 23% increase in non-external mortality. 980 people died during a week long heatwave in Victoria in 2009, compared to a mean of 606 deaths in the same period from the previous 5 years.
By the middle of the century, higher air temperature caused by global warming is expected to substantially increase the number of heat related deaths.
Exposure to cold also has adverse health effects. Cold air may make respiratory conditions worse, and can also increase blood pressure and the incidence of thrombosis.
Extreme Weather Events:
Bushfires killed 815 people in Australia between 1815 and 2010. In addition, bushfires are significant sources of air pollution that spreads across wide geographic areas. Hospital admissions records show a significant increase in presentations for asthma and other respiratory diseases when bushfire smoke pollutes the atmosphere. There is also evidence that natural disasters such as bushfires can trigger a range of long-term psychological disorders.
Drought has often been linked to emotional distress.
Storms and Flooding can cause drowning and physical trauma, as well as long-term depression. In addition, flooding can affect municipal water treatment facilities leading to contaminated water supplies and thus outbreaks of gastroenteritis. After floods, mould growth in dwellings may cause respiratory conditions.
Ultraviolet Radiation (UVR):
The sun continuously bombards Earth with UVR. However, ozone in the stratosphere absorbs some of the UVR before it reaches the Earth?s surface. Stratospheric ozone has been depleted by human activity in recent years, so more UVR reaches Earth?s surface ? this is particularly true for Australia and New Zealand because of their geographic location and relatively unpolluted atmosphere.
Low exposure to UVR: Our skin requires some exposure to UVR to enable our bodies to produce vitamin D. Insufficient exposure to UVR can result in vitamin D deficiency which can cause osteoporosis, and has also been associated with various cancers and auto-immune diseases.
High exposure to UVR causes chronic skin and eye diseases. It is a major cause of skin cancer, including melanoma. Fair skinned Australians and New Zealanders have the highest incidence of melanoma in the world.
Many Australians still do not heed warnings to limit their sun exposure to safe levels and wear suitable clothing and sunscreen.
Food Safety and Water Quality:
Compared to some developing countries, Australia and New Zealand have quite sophisticated regulatory systems to help maintain food safety and water quality. Nonetheless, it is estimated that there are 5.4 million cases of foodborne illness annually in Australia, costing $1.2 billion to our economy. It is important that we store and handle our food in ways prevent the spread of disease (e.g. Be sure to keep sensitive food refrigerated, and do not allow raw meat to contact other foods.)
Vector populations:
Vectors are agents that transmit a parasite or infection. Common vectors are mosquitoes, flies , ticks, lice and fleas. The most common mosquito-borne diseases in Australia include Ross River virus, Barmah Forest virus and overseas acquired malaria. For Example there were 4,203 Australian cases of Ross River virus notified to health authorities in 2007.
Vectors can be controlled by reducing or eliminating their breeding grounds, by using biological controls that target vector larvae, or by using insecticides directly on the vectors. As these measures are usually only partially effective, it is also important to use personal protection methods such as insect repellent, window screens, bed nets and preventative drugs when in areas where risk of vector borne disease is higher.
It is predicted that global warming will affect the geographic range of mosquitoes and other vectors, hence vector borne diseases may become an issue in areas that have not previously been affected.
Outdoor Air Quality:
Respiratory and cardiovascular disorders are the most common adverse health outcomes from polluted air. In New Zealand, 85% of the health costs from air pollution relate to small particles in the air (known as PM 10). These particles can come from sources as diverse as bushfire smoke, motor vehicle emissions and dust from building sites, etc. The World health Organisation has indicated that in the European Union, life expectancy is reduced by an average of 8.6 months due to particulate matter in the air.
Other common pollutants include nitrogen dioxide, sulphur dioxide and ozone.
Air pollution is also responsible for a wide range of non-fatal conditions such as pneumonia, bronchitis and asthma hospitalisation.
Indoor Air Quality:
We spend much of our time in our homes, offices, classrooms, cars, on public transport and in shops and restaurants. As many indoor areas have poor ventilation, pollutants may build up to levels 2 to 5 times more concentrated than outdoors. In 1998 it was estimated that the economic cost of poor indoor air quality in Australia was $12 billion per year.
A wide range of air pollutants may be present in some homes. Nitrogen dioxide, which can cause breathing difficulties and asthma attacks, is produced by gas stoves and heaters. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) can come from sources such as paints, solvents, pesticides, aerosols, construction materials and office equipment. VOCs are irritants of the respiratory system and have also been associated with other health effects such as fatigue and difficulty concentrating. Formaldehyde is a VOC that can cause eye, skin and airway irritation at very low levels in some people. Exposure of workers to very high levels of formaldehyde has been associated with several types of cancer. Sources of formaldehyde in the home include tobacco smoke, foam insulation, particle board, and carpets.
Environmental tobacco smoke (second-hand smoke) has been associated with a range of health conditions ranging from poor fetal growth, respiratory infections in children, asthma, cancer and heart disease. While the proportion of Australian children exposed to tobacco smoke has decreased markedly over the last decade, there are still some children who face this risk every day.
Walkability:
Walkability is a measure of how conducive an area is to walking for leisure, exercise or transport. Factors affecting walkability include residential density, quality of footpaths, ease of travel and attractiveness of surrounds. Researchers, town planners and the public are working to identify features and optimise the walkability of their environments.
Research has shown that people living in more walkable neighbourhoods drove cars less and had a lower body mass index than people living in less walkable areas.
Transport:
Our environment has infrastructure including roads, waterways, railways, airports, footpaths and cycle paths to allow people and goods to move from one location to another. Potential adverse health impacts due to transport include death and injury due to traffic accidents. Death rates from Australian traffic accidents have fallen significantly since the 1970?s. However, deaths and injuries from motor vehicle accidents are still a major public health problem ? in 2003 the costs were estimated to be $17 billion. Car dependence has been shown to contribute to obesity ? in New South Wales, residents driving to work were 13% more likely to be overweight or obese than non-car commuters. Noise and air pollution from transport can also contribute to adverse health outcomes.
Environmental Noise:
Outdoor sources of noise pollution include road, rail and air traffic, industry and construction activities. Indoor noise pollution can be ventilation systems, office machines, home appliances and neighbours.
Hearing loss from prolonged exposure to loud noise is well documented, and is usually caused by loud noise in the workplace. Sleep disturbance due to environmental noise can have short and long term effects. For optimal sleep, guidelines on community noise levels have been developed.
Cardiovascular disease risk increases with persistent noise-induced stress. This is thought to be due to release of hormones that increase blood pressure.
Noise pollution can cause annoyance, irritation and anger, but there is little evidence that it can result in mental health problems.
Green Space:
While we all understand the concept of green space such as parks being good for individual and community health, the relationship has been difficult to quantify. However, some studies do suggest that green space promotes an active lifestyle and that people who spend more time outdoors in green space felt less stressed and suffered from fewer stress related illnesses.
Housing Condition:
Dampness and mould can result in respiratory conditions, particularly in young children.
Asbestos was widely used in construction of houses until the mid 1980?s. It becomes a health risk when its fibres are release into the air, usually during construction and renovation. When inhaled, the fibres can cause two types of cancers (mesothelioma and lung cancer) as well as asbestosis, a lung disease causing increasing breathlessness. It may take 40 years between initial exposure to asbestos and disease onset.
Lead was used extensively in house paints before the 1970s. Lead is highly toxic even in small amounts, so dust or paint chips generated in house repairs can be a health risk. Children and pregnant women are most at risk. Lead can result in a range of adverse health outcomes including premature birth, low birth weight, damage to the brain and kidneys and neurological development problems.
It is recommended that expert advice be obtained before working on houses where asbestos or lead paint may be present.
Hazards in and around the home:
The home can be a dangerous place, so it is wise to consider potential hazards to try to avoid accidental injury. In Australia in 2007-2008 falls in the home resulted in 88,808 hospitalisations and 266 deaths. Accidental poisoning resulted in 5,918 hospitalisations and 431 deaths, while drowning resulted in 219 hospitalisations and 31 deaths (mainly children).
Water Fluoridation:
Water fluoridation began in Australia in 1964. Today, three quarters of the Australian population including all capitals cities, now receive water where fluoride has been adjusted to optimal levels.
Australians born after 1970 have about half the level of dental decay by the time they are young adults as their parents? generation. This shows that exposure to fluoride in water supplies and in toothpaste during childhood is a substantial benefit for Australians.
Fluoride makes teeth less susceptible to damage by acids formed by microorganisms living on and around the teeth, and can also assist in reversing the process of tooth decay. In 2007 the National Health and Medical Research Council concluded that the weight of scientific evidence shows no clear associations with other health risks.
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